Polycrystalline secondary particles suffer from anisotropic volume expansion during cycling, leading to micro-cracks and electrolyte penetration. Transitioning to single-crystalline or modified multi-element structures prevents structural disintegration and rapid capacity fade.

Unprotected cathode surfaces react with electrolytes causing capacity loss and safety risks. Stabilizing the interface prevents chemical breakdown and extends cycle life.

Direct contact between high-voltage active materials and liquid electrolytes causes chemical instability and electrolyte decomposition. Preventing these surface reactions stops gas evolution and capacity fading.

Parasitic chemical reactions between the electrode surface and electrolyte cause rapid capacity loss. Mitigating these reactions prevents electrolyte decomposition and extends cycle life.