First-cycle lithium consumption during SEI formation creates a permanent capacity deficit. Replenishing lithium via supplemental materials restores energy density and extends cycle life.

Standard electrode architectures limit the active material loading and packing efficiency within the cell volume. Addressing this bottleneck increases the total energy capacity of secondary batteries without increasing the physical footprint.

Limited volumetric and gravimetric capacity in standard electrode configurations. Overcoming this bottleneck allows for longer vehicle range and smaller battery footprints.

Limited spatial efficiency within multilayer cell stacks restricts the total energy capacity of battery packs. Improving the integration of electrode sheets increases the runtime and power output of electrical equipment.